The main causes of slavery and solution to the problem of slavery Essay

The main causes of slavery and solution to the problem of slavery - Essay Example The present research has identified that before Abraham Lincoln’s election into office, United States was a haven of peace and stability. There was no race, ethnicity or any form of social diversification. All people were equal, and no region north or south was superior to the other. Concealment by the governing departments offered an incredibly fertile environment for the growth of slavery. Heads of government, including the secretary of state who should be on the frontage of protecting all persons, concealed all information regarding the growth of slavery and civil wars in the country. The information was censured to meet a predetermined objective which was to cover up for slavery and the lords of the civil wars. The irony of these problems is that everyone knew about the problem apart from the heads of governments. This is a clear indication that the head of government had undisclosed interest. The civil wars and the rebellions that have been witnessed between the northern and the southern people are politically motivated. This is because of the disunity that has been created between the northern and the southern. The southern politicians are disappointed by the northern abolitionist since they feel that they are not handling slavery and civil wars in the right manner. The politicians are inciting their subjects by providing for them ammunition. The politicians have continued taking most of the positions and resources to be their own sources of wealth. The common citizens are the victims of wars and slavery while the politicians are the beneficiaries in both the southern and the northern regions. Most of the powers of the country were accorded to few individuals. The individuals decided how, who, when, and why things are done. Their decisions are final and irrevocable even at the courts of law.

To what extent do recent scientific discoveries in Europe reflect rise Essay

To what extent do recent scientific discoveries in Europe reflect rise and fall in religious observants - Essay Example The most famous being the fate of Galileo who fought and died for his discovery of truth. However these warring sects have also been in compromises later. Both of these sides sometimes supplementing their views upon a common interest. However it should also be understood that religion faced its major opposition not from science but from other areas including politics. Therefore highlighting the conflicts between sciences may be an act of others other than the scientific community who has vested interests. Science cannot be placed as a culprit which started the decline in religion. Religious reformations in the beginning of modern Europe and critical as well as anti authoritarian nature of the renaissance humanism definitely shattered the unity of intellectual thoughts. These developments were vital to the advancement of science. Moreover the discovery of new world and that the earth is round , along with the invention of fire arms and astrology, improved mechanical clocks, developmen t of ship building and new navigational routes etc helped in the opening up of new intellectual perspectives and methods of discoveries that completely depended upon rationalism rather than religion. Clashing with religious beliefs, new claims and discoveries were made based on mechanical terms. The world was explained in a mechanical way rather than in a spiritual way. Moreover scientific objectivity was towards complementing secularism rather than religious beliefs. It focused on how to improve the material life rather than spiritual. Europe witnessed a separation from the spiritual world which was regarded as a fundamental shift. Scientific discoveries enabled to think that the humans were capable of controlling their environment. This radical change of thoughts paved the way for industrialization in the early nineteenth century. It is true that these developments made by science were against some religious principles and thinking but it has also to be understood that the face of religion was somewhat maligned by some elements of the clergy which had political and selfish interests. They used religion to defend their selfish motives thereby creating an impression that religion was always against science or rational thinking (Early Modern Europe. 2008). An exaggerated feeling that always science and religion were at odds was propagated during the scientific revolution. The epicenter of such thoughts were the same culprits who were purely anti religious and others who strongly wished to see the declining influence of religion in Europe. This was especially true with the astronomical discoveries that shifted the focus away from the established Ptolemaic system to a heliocentric system. Really the institutionalized clergy was too much worried upon such developments. At the same time some who took a positive stance advocated that science should not be rejected because of the fact that it truly unfolds the admirable wisdom of God. This concept was developed by Jo hn Calvin. Calvin who was a protestant supported scientific theories to get popularized and believed. Therefore Christianity also saw a division on the basis of acceptance of scientific theories and discoveries during that period. In spite of division in Christianity that into Protestants and Catholics, science scaled new heights. Protestants were happy to support scientific discover

Introduction Of Smartphones To Business Management Essay

Introduction Of Smartphones To Business Management Essay 3.1 Introduction This chapter discuss about factors that influences the business environment used by PEST model. Then also discuss industry concept of competition, competitor analysis, such as strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats. 3.2 Introduction of Smartphone In 1973, Motorola introduced a first cellular telephone, and then no one had imagined that this would ignite a whole new technological change: The Mobile Revolution. Typical cell phones were used only for voice calling and later for text messaging, but with growth in mobile phone adoption, cell phones are now available with a number of different features like e-mail, video and audio facilities, internet access, etc. Thus, a whole new change in this mobile sector happened and the smartphone race began. This race also created competition between operators and handset manufacturers in getting more returns from mobile phone equipment and services. The rise in the smartphone segment accompanies the mobile internet revolution. However, the main reasons are better margins for Original Equipment Manufactures (OEMs) and higher Average revenue per user (ARPU) for operators. The smartphone is basically a combination of operating system, application, and handset manufacturers. In addition, due t o the increase in the application market of the smartphone and the growing popularity of OS used for mobile systems, it can be said that the near future will witness the most powerfull application running on phones with high powered operating systems. Considering current growth in the smartphone sector, it is estimated to grow by at least 18-20% by 2011 according to iSuppli. Following table shows sales of smartphones during year 2008 and 2009. Worldwide Smartphone Sales to End Users in 2009 (Thousands of Units) Company 2009 Sales Market Share (%) 2008 Sales Market Share (%) Nokia 440,881.6 36.4 472,314.9 38.9 Samsung 235,772.0 19.5 199,324.3 16.3 LG 122,055.3 10.1 102.789.1 8.4 Motorola 58,475.2 4.8 106.522.4 8.7 Sony Ericsson 54,873.4 4.5 93,106.1 7.6 Other 299,179.2 24.7 248,196.1 20.3 Total 1,211,236.6 100.0 1222,252.9 100.0 Table 1: World Smartphone Sales 3.2.1 Overview of Different Smartphone Operating Systems Before moving to Android and iPhone, it is necessary to understand 3.3 PEST Analysis PEST analysis is stands for Political, Economic, Social, and Technological analysis and describes a framework of macro-environmental factors used in the environmental scanning component of strategic management Political impact: Whether the diffusion of Smartphone will contribute to information control and national unity, or strengthen information flow and centrifugal forces are question. However, it may enhance individual rights of political involvement by spreading political information and critiques easier and faster than before. As a result, traditional government control of information traffic maybe weakened. Calgary (1994) mentioned that, by using the increasing economic interests of the foreign business in China and Hong Kong, the Chinese government could take advantage of the lobby power of the foreign telecommunications multinationals involved in the diffusion of mobile communications in China as a political card to force foreign governments to make favorable policies toward China. The permission of allowing AT T to sell its used mobile communications system in part of China and Chinas good relation with Motorola are two examples of an indirect political impact from the diffusion. Economic impact: The diffusion of Smartphone communications can help China and Hong Kong economic development. Wireless communications devices can provide convenience to commercial mobility and prompt access to business information in the current social wave of doing business first in China and Hong Kong. Business becomes more mobile than ever in an information age, but chinas still poor wired telecommunications network cannot meet the demand for mobile communications which keep the information sharing and exchange fast to avoid the long time economic bottleneck Chinas limited wired networks and transportation capabilities. There the Chinese people, believing time is money, turn their eyes to pagers and cellular phones as a very useful business tool to make money. As a result, the diffusion of mobile communications adds a new push to Chinas increasing economic activities. China is a unique, large market where a low per capita income combines with consumers desire for advanced communications products. Smartphone in China have created a profitable business in China in the past few years. Benefited by the present demand exceeding supply, sales and operations of pagers and cellular phones can get capital back very fast. Also according to the Western telecommunication professionals, the economics of wireless technology as an alternative to wired services looks even more appealing. Due to difficult terrain, long local loops and the constant need for repairs, the cost of adding a new wired subscriber in China averages around $2k and is often more. But wireless technology cuts this by half. The demand for Smartphone has made the multinationals such as Microsoft, Apple and Android increase their sales and investment in China and Hong Kong. Thus China and Hong Kong can improve its inadequate communication system which has been one of the bottlenecks of its economic development by having the aid of these foreign resources. Also with more foreign players competing in Chinas market for mobile communications, China will be in a favorable position to make better business deals by the way of using one against another. However, the increasing market demand for imported finished products also drains more scarce foreign exchanges out of Chinas reserves. In turn the foreign drain may hurt Chinas economic expansion in other areas such as energy and transportation. Social impact: The diffusion will change the way the Chinese communicate and work. With more Smartphone devices used, the social contacts will increase so much that more social activities will be arranged easily and on time. These objects also provide a convenient channel for the personal dialogue among family members and friends who have been able to get together often like before because of busier individual time schedules and scattered living spaces. Also with more Smartphone adopters, social concerns about health safety, privacy, and intrusiveness will become salient gradually, though some of them are ignored by the Chinese at present time because of the Chinese basically positive attitude toward technological innovations and the relatively small portion of Smartphone users among the Chinese. At the same time, the diffusion, along with other socioeconomic factors, has widened the socioeconomic gap between the early Chinese adopters and the late adopters or have-nots. Smartphone with their unreasonably high cost add a new symbol into the upstart culture which is usually regarded as a negative social phenomenon in Chinas media and a disgusting social habit in most Chinese eyes. A cultural conflict between the haves and the have-nots occurs. The haves want to show their mobile phones in certain public occasions to let others know their social images: they are bus, they are dealing business, they have money, they have more social connections, so they are important. Most users also think the negative social comments on them are form the have-nots jealous psychology; the have-nots hate to see the impudence because they know most of the self-funded Chinese cellular users are dubious people with less education background and less social taste, some of them even are former crimina ls. Sun (1992) mentioned that, the have-lots also believe many of the users can afford a Smartphone because their money is made not through productive activities but through trade, speculation, or gambling on the stock market. The show-off manner of wealth has been accepted by many Chinese interviewees as an eye-catching feature in the Chinese culture though it is never seen as a good behavior. They think, however, that when more Chinese can afford the price lowering Smartphone and accessing mobile communications, the social cultural conflict will be resolved automatically because the present symbol of social status will be worth nothing when more people have Smartphone. This judgment is reasonable, but its prerequisite depends on the diffusion rate of Smartphone in China and Hong Kong. In addition, the diffusion of mobile communications may increase governments social control resource by equipping the police with various wireless devices to locate possible protesters, as one of the government preventive measures showed during the incident anniversaries these years. Technology impact: The diffusion of Smartphone help more Chinese become aware of the technical advances of the wireless innovations. In general, the peoples think natural science and technology are value-free and the continuing technological improvements and adaptations are positive to national development. They see the winners in todays world as determined by economic strengths and technological advantages, rather than ideology and military. So more people usually take a welcome attitude to new technology and like to get more knowledge about the innovations, unless they cannot afford or understand these new technologies. As for the Chinese communication professionals, the diffusion of mobile communications can make them learn more about equipment design, production, and standards either from imported products or from various technology transfer means such as joint venture and cooperative development. Because of their high-education and tech-management background, they have more ability, as change agents, to persuade the decision makers and common Chinese to adopt or reject certain technologies. The diffusion has helped its communications systems to catch up with the mobile communications technological trend in the world. The Chinese accepted the fact of their backwardness in most high-tech fields, but the professionals also know the leapfrogging advantage in a later adopter, having more technological choices after comparative evaluations, saving time and capital. The quick adoption to program controlled switches and optical fibers has provided a successful experience to the improvement of wired networks. So the improvement wireless communication technologies also gives more alternatives among the updated and appropriate innovations to leapfrog its mobile communications system. On the other hand, the diffusion also increases the technology dependence of foreign wireless innovators. Although can take advantage of leapfrogging by importing, it will never obtain the most advanced technology and the key techniques. But the diffusion will stimulate market demands for newer mobile innovations, thus technologically rely on the wireless pioneers from the developed countries for quite a long time, regardless of how strong its national pride is. In short, the diffusion of mobile communications, on one hand, does raise the Chineses knowledge level and enhance Chins communication capability. On the other hand, it also reinforces the technology determinism in the Chinese minds and its technology dependence on the developed countries.

Essay --

SUMMARY Amazon.com, Inc. (hereafter referred to as â€Å"Amazon†, â€Å"it†, â€Å"the business†, or â€Å"the company†), is an online retailer that has branched into content creation and web services. Its main competitors include retail giants Wal-mart and Target, as well as entertainment providers Netflix and Barnes and Nobel. Recently, it has found itself competing with technology giant Apple as ventures into cloud services. Amazon was incorporate in 1994 and was offered publically in 1999. It has grown rapidly into the world’s number one online retailer, with millions of products. To achieve this, Amazon has acquired a global network of distribution centers and used technology to provide consumers with access to the best products at the lowest rates. Amazon’s services have become integrated into the modern consumer’s demands for immediate (or near immediate) gratification and investors are highly optimistic about the company’s prospects. Amazon has recently been demonstrating growing revenues in a time where overall sales in the retail industry are growing much more slowly. However, this is not all that is important to an investor. While the company’s revenues are high, it reports losses as it continues to spend to expand rapidly. Investors should carefully analyze past financial statements to determine whether the growth rate in sales is sufficient to match the current expectations and market prices for the retail giant. Such an analysis will reveal that Amazon’s current method of operation plans for the company’s long term profitability, so the company may not be an ideal choice for the more short-term investor. Additionally, Amazon has increased its areas of operation by branching into content and web services and the investor should be aware... ...e Amazon its positive image in the eyes of consumers. Recently, much has come to light that shows less than stellar working conditions for Amazon’s employees. In December 2013, Amazon workers in Germany walked off of their jobs and went on strike claiming â€Å" We are people, not robots†. Claims across the world state that Amazon pays its workers in its distribution warehouses only a little more than the appropriate minimum wage for work that is more demanding than typical retail work. The BBC even found that working conditions at Amazon warehouses could be linked to higher rates of mental and physical defects. If Amazon does not provide better worker’s rights and benefits, it may lose its competitive advantage as employees turn to other employers. However, it is possible that this will just push Amazon to pursue technological improvements to replace human workers.

Toxic Water

Turn the tap on and drink a glass of water. Does it taste funny? Is it clear? The water you are drinking may be toxic without any such indicators. Water is all around us; it is essential for life. Over two thirds of earth’s surface is covered by water, ___________________but everyone only wants and need clean water. Each year, water pollution increases and continues to be responsible for harming our environment. According to Duhigg (2009) of the New York Times, more than 100 wells were polluted by agricultural runoff within a few month time period, affecting livestock such as pigs and cows (n. . ). Water pollution is a silent and deadly pollution – bacterium can be tasteless, colorless, and scentless. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2009) says that the United States has the safest water supplies in the world, but states that when water sources became contaminated, they can easily cause widespread sickness and disease from waterborne germs including Cryptosporidium, E. coli, Hepatitis A. , Giardia intestinalis, and other pathogens. Despite progress reducing water pollution from the largest sources, our country still faces serious pollution challenges. Violations are still too widespread, and enforcement too uneven. We need to do better controlling pollution. Water pollution can occur through natural process, but many times water pollution is mostly a result of human activities. Water is used every day in our homes and industries; the average of water use in the United States is approximately about 100 gallons per day per person. The water we use and drink is taken from lakes, rivers, and wells and from underground (groundwater); and after we have used and contaminated it, most of it returns to these locations (DES, n. d. , p. 1). Everyone must be aware of pollution in order to avoid it. Despite the efforts to decrease water pollution, the USA continues to faces a serious pollution challenges (US Environmental, 2009, n. p. ) Pollution is all around us; no one is safe, therefore the federal and state government and especially the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) must reinforce the rules and to prohibit pollution and to protect public health. Through this paper I will be addressing the followings: 1. How do people know if water is safe? 2. Who is responsible for ensuring water is safe? 3. What are the effects of consuming toxic water? . How can people protect their families from toxic water? How do people know if water is safe? Is your drinking water safe? The CDC and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), reports that people getting sick from drinking tap water is unusual (Dean, 2009, n. p. ). The EPA states that â€Å"the Unite States enjoys one of the best supplies of drinking water in the worldâ₠¬  (2003, p. 1). Over the years many people did not worry about their quality of water, the EPA assures that tap water in the USA meets the federal and state standards ( 2003, p. 1). In the other hand, Who is responsible for ensuring water is safe? Congress Passed a law in 1974 to protect public health by regulating the nation’s public drinking water supply and protecting sources of drinking water what is called the Safe drinking water Act (SDWA) (EPA, 2003, p. 2). The EPA is responsible for regulate What are the effects of consuming toxic water? According to Monroe County Department of Environmental Services (DES), â€Å"Some major types of water pollution include microbiological, chemical, oxygen depletion, nutrients, and suspended matter (n. d. p. 2). Microbiological: Disease-causing (pathogenic) microorganisms, like bacteria, viruses and protozoa can cause swimmer to get sick. People who eat contaminated fish and shellfish can become ill. Some serious diseases that are waterborne are polio and cholera (DES, n. d. p. 2). Chemical: There are many varieties of chemicals from industries, such as metal and solvent, and even chemicals which are formed from the breakdown of natural wastes (i. e. ammonia) poisoning fish and other aquatic life and polluting water. (DES, n. d. p. 2). DES states that â€Å"Pesticides used in agriculture and around the home are other types of toxic chemicals† (n. d. p. 2). Other material such as detergent foam and oils float that have water ody, many times offensive odors, these chemical are responsible for making rivers caught on fire. Do to the chemical wastes many times flammable, the Cuyahoga River, Ohio, caught fire (n. d. p. 2), so what are people drinking? Oxygen-depleting Substances: Nutrients: How can people protect their families from toxic water? Conclusion â€Å"To keep this used water from spoiling our water resou rces, pollutants must removed from the water before its discharged back into the environment† (DES, n. d. p. 4). To improve water quality state and federal water program must be enforced to address serious new threats (EPA, 2009, p. 6).

An Overview Of The Prison Systems

This critique on the criminal justice system is going to focus on prisons. Prisons are institutions for the confinement of persons convicted of criminal offenses. This paper is going to discuss the early history of prisons, early American prisons, goals of prisons, North Carolina prisons, and an overall overview of the prison system. Throughout history, most societies have built places in which to hold persons accused of criminal acts pending some form of trial. But the confinement of persons/criminals after a trial for punishment is relatively new. In ancient times (around the 15th century), the penalties for crime were often some type of corporal punishment. Whipping, drawn and quartered, broken on the wheel, burned at the stake, beheaded, hanged, or stretched on the rack. In the 16th century England, vagrants and petty offenders were committed to correctional institutions known as workhouses, a correctional facility for persons guilty of minor criminal violations. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, the government began to transport convicted felons to the English colonies. The punishment was initially thought of as the hard labor to which the prisoners were consigned. However, the idea that persons convicted of crime could be punished and then released after a relatively long period of time, was a new concept. Jails were first used as collection points for criminals awaiting transportation. Early jails were mostly dark, overcrowded, and filthy. The prisoners were held together indiscriminately, no separation of men and women, the young and old, the convicted and the unconvicted, or the sane and the insane. In America, the concept of imprisonment became a realization. The English Quaker, William Penn, abolished the death penalty for most crimes in the late 1600s, substituting imprisonment as a punishment. After battling between the reinstatement of the death penalty in 1718 and the replacement with incarceration in 1789, the Walnut Street Goal (Philadelphia) became the first prison in the United States. By the mid 19th century, most of the other states had followed. Two prison models soon emerged in the U.S. The first system, known as the Auburn Model, began in New York in 1817. The prisoners worked together in total silence during the day, but were housed separately at night. Very strict discipline was enforced, and violators were subjected to severe reprisals. The second model, Pennsylvania, began in 1829 at Cherry Hill (Eastern State Penitentiary). The Pennsylvania model was based on solitary confinement for convicts both day and night. The two models were both criticized very vigorously. Proponents of the Pennsylvania model focused on its hope of rehabilitation. The theory of being a felon and locked up alone all day in a cell with nothing but a Bible to read, would help out drastically. The Auburn model was criticized as being virtual slavery. This was thought because of the fact that the prisoners were often put to work for private entrepreneurs who had contracted with the state for their labor. Prisoners were never paid, leaving profits for the business owners and the state. Advocates of the Auburn model alleged that the idleness of the prisoners in the Cherry Hill penitentiary sometimes caused madness. Proponents stressed the activity of the prisoners and the profits from their labor, which meant that the states did not have to finance the prison. Rehabilitation was the systems main goal. In 1870, the National Congress on Penitentiary and Reformatory Discipline (known as the American Correctional Association) met for the first time in Cincinnati, Ohio. The congress adopted a set of principles for corrections, chief of which was the primary goal of rehabilitation. This led to the juvenile reformatories. Although the attempts to rehabilitate were relatively unsuccessful, the goal of rehabilitation changed the criminal justice system in the following decades. Probation and parole, work release, community corrections, and even a separate system of procedures and courts for dealing with juveniles, can all be traced to what was discussed at the first meeting in 1870. The Rehabilitation programs such as vocational training, guidance counseling, and psychotherapy began as part of the whole rehabilitation goal. In 1975, a study of more than 240 such programs essentially concluded that none was truly successful in reducing the recidivism rate (relapse into criminal behavior). Although there have been much criticism to this study, many believe the basic conclusion that participation in these programs was often not really voluntary, because prisoners hoped parole boards would look favorably on those who enrolled. Most penologist (a branch of criminology dealing with prison management and the treatment of offenders) now agree that rehabilitation is not a proper reason for imprisoning someone. Thus, rehabilitation is no longer the only, or even the main objective of correction agencies. In North Carolina, it wasn†t until 1868 that the state adopted a new constitution that provided for a state penitentiary. Inmates began building North Carolinas first prison, Central Prison, in 1870. It was a completed castle-like structure near the state capitol. It was finished in December 1884, when the prisoners started moving in.  · In 1875, these same inmates were leased to private employers as laborers and farmers. Under the lease, businesses had complete responsibility for the inmates. Many worked in rock quarries and built railways, while others farmed two tracts of land that the state leased.  · In 1901, inmates began working on state roads. They were moved from work sight to work sight in horse-drawn prison cages. In 1910, the incentive wage system began and inmates could then earn up to 15 cents a day, paid upon release, for the work that was being done.  · In 1925, the General Assembly enacted a law changing the state†s prison from a corporation to a department of state government. At the time, the state prison system included Central Prison, Caledonia Prison Farm, Camp Polk Prison Farm and eight road camps. Then, due to lack of regular maintenance and repair, the conditions were diminishing. The state took over the control of the prisons and the inmates, and provided new construction money from the Highway Fund for prison renovation.  · In 1935, women inmates form Central Prison moved to a south Raleigh prison camp, the site of today†s Correctional Institution for Women. Women from the Caledonia Prison Farm moved to the Raleigh facility permanently in 1956.  · In 1957, North Carolina became the first state to initiate a work release program that allowed inmates to work in private employment during the day and return to confinement at night.  · In 1958, striped prison clothing was replaced with gray uniforms for close custody, brown for medium, and green for minimum.  · In 1965, all prisons were desegregated and mental health services were established in prisons. Prisoners in North Carolina have numerous things they can do. Prisoners can work, volunteer, go to the correctional chaplain, work out, or just about anything. These inmates work in many different places. Food Services, Unit Services, Work Release, Prison Industry, Road Squads, Construction, State Agencies, Local Agencies, Community Work Crews, Vocational Education, and Academic Education. Other inmates take part in substance abuse treatment, have health problems, or are being admitted into prison. Ministry to the incarcerated is as old as incarceration itself. Chaplincy in North Carolina dates back to 1876. In the spring of 2000, over 100 chaplains were serving the inmate population. Annually, countless numbers of worship services, scripture studies, seminars, counseling sessions, segregation visits, and chaplains conduct special events. Prison chaplaincy is a special ministry of opportunity. It can be a rewarding spiritual endeavor for those persons who have felt a divine call to this challenging ministry. At the beginning of 2001, North Carolina†s prison system consisted of 78 prison units of various sizes with eight of the units having a standard operating capacity of less than 90 inmates. However, the largest facility, Central Prison, has a capacity of 937. The cost of North Carolina†s prison system varies from different forms of custody. For the Fiscal Year 1999-2000, the daily operating cost of the 64 bed medium security prison unit at Cleveland County was $54.06 per inmate per day, compared to the $36.44 per inmate daily cost of the 832 bed medium security unit at Brown Creek. The cost goes by prison security level. The system wide average operational cost for housing inmates in North Carolina prisons in Fiscal Year 1999-2000 was $65.65 per day. It is broken down into:  · Minimum Custody at $52.52 per day In theory, the U.S. prison system today consists of a variety of institutions (minimum, medium, maximum, jails, and federal institutions) each adapted to the characteristics and risks posed by its population. Minimum-security prisons are often built on a campus like arrangement, which allows the prisoners autonomy and freedom within broad bounds. It is a prison facility with the lowest level of security for nondangerous, stable offenders. Prisoners may have rooms with opaque doors rather than cells that are under constant surveillance. Visits are normally private, where close contact with visitors is encouraged in order to enhance their prisoner†s ties with the family and community. Medium-security prisons are a middle-level prison facility with a more relaxed security measures and fewer inmates. Maximum-security prisons (the most secure prison facility) are often massive buildings, with high masonry walls or electrified fences, where the primary concern is security. Prisoners are under constant surveillance where their movements are severely restricted, and many are required to remain in their cells almost the entire day. Outdoor recreation is minimal, and visits, when allowed, are often conducted by telephone, with a glass partition between the prisoner and the visitor. There are about 130 of these maximum-security prisons that collectively house more than 100,000 prisoners. Jails, a place of confinement for persons held in lawful custody: such a place under the jurisdiction of a local government (as a county) for the confinement of persons awaiting trial or those convicted of minor crimes , are typically not part of the state prison system. They are often managed individually by the districts or counties in which they are located. Many criticize the jail, saying that is the worst part of the U.S. penal organization. In recent decades, most prison systems in the U.S. have come under legal scrutiny, and the courts have found them severely wanting. Many have been declared unconstitutional in the sense that the conditions- including idleness, overcrowding, poor medical care, substantial violence, and lack of rights accorded prisoners- render confinement in these institutions â€Å"cruel and unusual† punishment and hence in violation of the 8th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, (Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted ). Such judicial decisions have increased the pressure on state prison authorities to replace their antiquated prison facilities with more modern and humane institutions, in keeping with the ideals set forth by penologists a century ago.